BASICS
DESCRIPTION
- Testicular cancer accounts for 1% of all cancers in men; it is the most common solid malignancy in men aged 15 to 34 years (1).
- An estimated 8,430 new cases were diagnosed, and an estimated 380 deaths occurred in the United States in 2015 (2).
- Treatment produces an overall 5-year survival of 95.3%; for African American patients, this 5-year survival rate is alarmingly lower but has improved from 86% to 90% (2).
ETIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
95% of all malignant tumors arising in the testes are germ cell tumors (GCTs), which are subclassified as follows:
- Seminomatous GCTs: most common type overall
- Nonseminomatous GCTs (NSGCTs): These include embryonal cell carcinoma, choriocarcinoma, yolk sac tumor, teratomas, or often multiple cell types; these are more clinically aggressive tumors.
RISK FACTORS
- Cryptorchidism is the most firmly established risk factor: Relative risk of testicular cancer in all patients with cryptorchidism is 3 to 8, with a lower relative risk of 2 to 3 in those undergoing orchiopexy by age 12 years; in patients with unilateral cryptorchidism, the relative risk of testicular cancer in the contralateral normally descended testis is negligible (3).
- Personal history of testicular cancer
- Use of muscle building supplements
- Positive family history for testicular cancer
- Testicular dysgenesis
- Klinefelter syndrome
- Caucasian race
- HIV infections
GENERAL PREVENTION
No evidence that screening for testicular cancer is effective (4).
DIAGNOSIS
HISTORY
- A painless solid testicular mass is pathognomonic for testicular cancer.
- Clinical symptoms of epididymitis or orchitis that do not respond to treatment warrant further evaluation.
- Gynecomastia can be a rare systemic endocrine manifestation of testicular neoplasm.
PHYSICAL EXAM
- Testicular exam: Palpate for size, consistency, and nodules; masses do not transilluminate; a firm, hard, or fixed area should be considered suspicious.
- Lymph node and abdominal exam
- Gynecomastia
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS & INTERPRETATION
Initial Tests (lab, imaging)
- α-Fetoprotein (AFP), ²-human chorionic gonadotropin ( ²-hCG), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatinine, chemistry profile, complete blood count, liver enzymes, chest x-ray (CXR), and testicular ultrasound (US)
- Tumor markers AFP, ²-hCG, and LDH are used to assist with diagnosis, prognosis, assessing treatment outcome, and monitoring for relapse:
- AFP
- Produced by nonseminomatous testicular cancer and is therefore associated with this histologic type
- Those with a histologically "pure " testicular seminoma and an elevated AFP are assumed to possess an undetected focus of nonseminoma tumor.
- ²-hCG
- May be associated with both seminomatous or nonseminomatous tumors
- Hypogonadism and marijuana use may cause benign elevations of ²-hCG.
- LDH is less specific than AFP.
- Testicular US is the initial study.
- If an intratesticular mass is identified, measure serum AFP, LDH, and ²-hCG and order a CXR.
- CT scan of the abdomen/pelvis, positron emission tomography (PET) scan, MRI of the brain, and bone scan are used for staging and metastases evaluation as clinically indicated.
Diagnostic Procedures/Other
- Radical inguinal orchiectomy is the primary procedure for diagnosis and treatment.
- Testicular biopsy may be rarely considered if a suspicious intratesticular abnormality is identified on US; however, testicular microcalcification on US without any other abnormality can simply be observed and does not demand a biopsy.
- For those with unilateral testicular cancer, contralateral testicular biopsy is not routinely performed but should be considered when there is a cryptorchid testis, marked testicular atrophy, or a suspicious US for intratesticular abnormalities.
Test Interpretation
Clinical staging (5):
- Stage 0: carcinoma in situ
- Stage IA: tumor limited to testis and epididymis without vascular/lymphatic invasion; tumor may invade into the tunica albuginea but not the tunica vaginalis; normal serum tumor markers
- Stage IB: tumor limited to testis and epididymis with vascular/lymphatic invasion or tumor extending through tunica albuginea with involvement of tunica vaginalis; tumor invades the spermatic cord with or without vascular/lymphatic invasion; tumor invades the scrotum with or without vascular/lymphatic invasion; no lymph node involvement or distant metastasis; normal serum tumor markers
- Stage IS: any tumor with elevated serum tumor markers but no nodal involvement or metastasis
- Stage IIA: any tumor with lymph node mass/masses <2 cm
- Stage IIB: any tumor with lymph node mass/masses 2 to 5 cm
- Stage IIC: any tumor with lymph node mass >5 cm
- Stage IIIA: any tumor/lymph node presence; with nonregional nodal or pulmonary metastasis; either serum tumor markers normal or with mild elevation
- Stage IIIB: any tumor/lymph node presence; no distant metastasis or nonregional nodal involvement or pulmonary metastasis; with moderately elevated serum tumor markers
- Stage IIIC: any tumor/lymph node presence; with or without any metastasis; with greatly elevated serum tumor markers
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Epidermoid cyst, epididymitis, hernia, hydrocele, hematoma, lymphoma, orchitis, spermatocele, testicular torsion, varicocele
TREATMENT
GENERAL MEASURES
- Seminoma: Specifics are noted in the National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines (1):
- Stages IA, IB: Options may include surveillance (preferred) (for low tumor load malignancy, i.e., pT1 " pT3), single-agent carboplatin, or radiotherapy (2)[A].
- Stage IS: Repeat elevated serum tumor marker and abdominal/pelvic CT scan (2)[A].
- Stage IIA: radiotherapy to include para-aortic and ipsilateral iliac lymph nodes (preferred) or primary chemotherapy (2)[A]
- Stage IIB: primary chemotherapy (preferred) or radiotherapy in select nonbulky cases to include para-aortic and ipsilateral iliac lymph nodes (2)[A]
- Stages IIC, III
- Good risk (any primary site and no nonpulmonary visceral metastases and normal AFP with any ²-hCG or LDH): primary etoposide and cisplatin (EP) or bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin (BEP) chemotherapy (1)
- Intermediate risk (any primary site and nonpulmonary visceral metastases and normal AFP with any ²-hCG or LDH): primary BEP chemotherapy (1)
- Nonseminoma: Tumors with both seminomatous and nonseminomatous histology are managed as nonseminomatous. See "National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines " (1):
- Stage IA: nonseminomatous surveillance protocol (preferred) or nerve-sparing retroperitoneal lymph node dissection (RPLND) (2)[A]
- Stage IB: nerve-sparing RPLND or primary BEP chemotherapy (2)[A]; for T2 only can enter nonseminomatous surveillance protocol (2)[B]
- Stage IS: primary chemotherapy followed by response evaluation:
- Complete response, negative tumor markers: nonseminomatous surveillance protocol (2)[A]
- Partial response, negative tumor markers: surgical resection of all residual masses (2)[A]
- Incomplete response: consider second-line therapy (2)[A]
- Stage IIA
- Negative tumor markers: nerve-sparing RPLND (2)[A] or primary chemotherapy (2)[B]
- Persistent marker elevation: primary chemotherapy followed by response evaluation
- Complete response, negative tumor markers: nonseminomatous surveillance protocol (2)[A] or bilateral RPLND +/ ’ nerve-sparing in select cases (2)[B]
- Partial response, negative tumor markers: surgical resection of all residual masses (2)[A]
- Incomplete response: Consider second-line therapy (2)[A].
- Stage IIB
- Negative tumor markers: primary chemotherapy or nerve-sparing RPLND in highly selected cases (2)[A]
- Persistent marker elevation: primary chemotherapy followed by response evaluation
- Complete response, negative tumor markers: nonseminomatous surveillance protocol (2)[A] or bilateral RPLND +/ ’ nerve-sparing in selected cases (2)[B]
- Partial response, negative tumor markers: surgical resection of all residual masses (2)[A]
- Incomplete response: Consider second-line therapy (2)[A].
- Stage IIC: primary chemotherapy followed by response evaluation as per stages IIA and IIB (2)[A]
- Stages IIIA, IIIB and IIIC: primary chemotherapy depending on risk profile, which is based on tumor, metastases, and postorchiectomy serum tumor markers (2)[A]
- Brain metastases: primary chemotherapy +/ ’ radiotherapy, +/ ’ surgery, as clinically indicated
MEDICATION
First Line
Primary chemotherapy regimens for GCTs:
- EP: Etoposide 100 mg/m2/day IV on days 1 to 5, cisplatin 20 mg/m2/day IV on days 1 to 5; repeat every 21 days (1)[A].
- BEP: Etoposide 100 mg/m2/day IV on days 1 to 5, cisplatin 20 mg/m2/day IV on days 1 to 5; bleomycin 30 U/dose IV weekly on days 1, 8, and 15 or days 2, 9, and 16; repeat every 21 days (1)[A].
- VIP: Etoposide 75 mg/m2/day IV on days 1 to 5; mesna 120 mg/m2 slow IV push before ifosfamide on day 1, then mesna 1,200 mg/m2 IV continuous infusion on days 1 to 5; ifosfamide 1,200 mg/m2/day on days 1 to 5; cisplatin 20 mg/m2/day IV on days 1 to 5, repeat every 21 days (1)[A].
Second Line
- These agents are considered in patients who do not respond to first-line therapy or those who experience a recurrence: carboplatin, cisplatin, etoposide, ifosfamide, mesna, paclitaxel, and vinblastine (1)[A].
- Gemcitabine, oxaliplatin, and paclitaxel are used in palliative chemotherapy regimens (1)[A].
ADDITIONAL THERAPIES
Consider sperm banking before treatment that may compromise fertility; rarely covered by insurance.
SURGERY/OTHER PROCEDURES
- Radical inguinal orchiectomy: primary treatment for testicular cancer for all patients; prosthesis can be inserted at this time.
- RPLND identifies nodal metastases and provides accurate pathologic staging of the retroperitoneum.
ONGOING CARE
FOLLOW-UP RECOMMENDATIONS
- Pure seminoma: Specifics are noted in the National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines (1),(2)[A]:
- Stages IA, IB: in general, H&P, optional tumor markers, every 3 to 6 months for 1 years, every 6 to 12 months for years 2 to 33, then annually for years 4 to 5; abdominal/pelvic CT at 3, 6 and 12 months then every 6 to 12 months for years 2 to 3, every 12 to 24 months for years 4 to 5; CXR, as clinically indicated; less frequent if adjuvant therapy is given
- Stage IS: repeat elevated serum tumor marker and assess with abdominal/pelvic CT scan for evaluable disease
- Stages IIA, IIB (select): in general, H&P, optional tumor markers every 3 months for year 1, every 6 months for years 2 to 5; abdominal/pelvic CT at 3 and 6 to 12 months, then annually for years 2 to 3, then as clinically indicated; CXR every 6 months for years 1 to 2
- Stages IIB (select), IIC, and III: Check all serum tumor markers along with chest, abdominal, and pelvic CT:
- Residual mass 0 to 3 cm and normal serum tumor markers: H&P, AFP, ²-hCG, LDH, CXR every 2 months for year 1, every 3 months for year 2, every 6 months for years 3 to 4, then annually; abdominal/pelvic CT scan at 3 to 6 months then as clinically indicated, PET scans as clinically indicated
- Residual mass >3 cm and normal serum tumor markers: PET scan 6 weeks after chemotherapy:
- Negative PET scan: abdominal/pelvic CT scans every 6 months for year 1, then annually for 5 years
- Positive PET scan: Consider RPLND or second-line chemotherapy or radiotherapy
- Any recurrence: Treat according to extent of disease at relapse.
- Nonseminoma: Specifics are noted in the National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines (1):
- Stages IA and IB on surveillance only: H&P, AFP, ²-hCG, LDH, every 2 months for year 1, every 3 months for year 2, every 4 to 6 months for year 3, every 6 months for year 4, annually thereafter; CXR and abdominal/pelvic CT depending on IA or IB
- Follow-up after complete response to chemotherapy and RPLND in general: H&P, AFP, ²-hCG, LDH every 2 to 3 months for years 1 to 2, every 6 months for years 3 to 5, annually thereafter; abdominal/pelvic CT every 6 months for year 1, annually for year 2, as clinically indicated thereafter
- Follow-up after RPLND only: H&P, AFP, ²-hCG, LDH, CXR every 2 months for year 1, every 3 months for year 2, every 4 months for year 3, every 6 months for year 4, annually thereafter; abdominal/pelvic CT at 3 to 4 months and, as clinically indicated, thereafter; CXR every 2 to 4 months year 1, 3 to 6 months year 2, annually thereafter
PROGNOSIS
>90% of patients diagnosed are cured, including 70 " 80% with advanced tumors (1).
COMPLICATIONS
- Surgical: hematoma, hemorrhage, infection, and infertility
- Radiotherapy: radiation enteritis and infertility
- Late complications (6):
- Cardiovascular toxicity and second malignancies each have a 25-year risk of about 16% in those treated with chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy.
- Risk for secondary malignancies remains increased for at least 35 years after treatment.
- Increased incidence of metabolic syndrome occurs and is likely associated with lower testosterone levels.
- Other late complications associated with chemotherapy, depending on the regimen, include chronic neurotoxicity, ototoxicity, renal function impairment, and pulmonary fibrosis.
- The incidence of late relapse in treated testicular cancer is now estimated to be 2 " 6%; the time to late relapse ranges from 2 to 32 years, with a median of 6 years (6).
REFERENCES
11 Motzer RJ, Jonasch E, Agarwal N, et al. Testicular cancer, Version 2.2015. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2015;13(6):772 " 799.22 Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al, eds. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975 " 2012. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2012/. Accessed 2015.33 Lip SZ, Murchison LE, Cullis PS, et al. A meta-analysis of the risk of boys with isolated cryptorchidism developing testicular cancer in later life. Arch Dis Child. 2013;98(1):20 " 26.44 Ilic D, Misso ML. Screening for testicular cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(2):CD007853.55 Testis. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al, eds. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2010:469 " 478.66 Efstathiou E, Logothetis CJ. Review of late complications of treatment and late relapse in testicular cancer. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2006;4(10):1059 " 1070.
ADDITIONAL READING
- Hanna NH, Einhorn LH. Testicular cancer " discoveries and updates. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(21):2005 " 2016.
- Marcell AV, Bell DL, Joffe A, et al. The male genital examination: a position paper of the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. J Adolesc Health. 2012;50(4):424 " 425.
- U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for testicular cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force reaffirmation recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2011;154(7):483 " 486.
- Wood HM, Elder JS. Cryptorchidism and testicular cancer: separating fact from fiction. J Urol. 2009;181(2):452 " 461.
CODES
ICD10
- C62.90 Malig neoplasm of unsp testis, unsp descended or undescended
- C62.00 Malignant neoplasm of unspecified undescended testis
- C62.10 Malignant neoplasm of unspecified descended testis
- C62.91 Malig neoplm of right testis, unsp descended or undescended
- C62.02 Malignant neoplasm of undescended left testis
- C62.01 Malignant neoplasm of undescended right testis
- C62.12 Malignant neoplasm of descended left testis
- C62.11 Malignant neoplasm of descended right testis
- C62.92 Malig neoplasm of left testis, unsp descended or undescended
ICD9
- 186.9 Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified testis
- 186.0 Malignant neoplasm of undescended testis
SNOMED
- 363449006 Malignant tumor of testis (disorder)
- 188219004 malignant tumor of undescended testis (disorder)
- 94087009 Primary malignant neoplasm of testis (disorder)
- 255107005 Seminoma of testis (disorder)
- 188235006 Malignant tumor of tunica vaginalis (disorder)
- 313428008 Seminoma of undescended testis
- 313429000 Seminoma of descended testis
- 416769008 Malignant teratoma of testis (disorder)
- 278491007 Mixed seminoma teratoma of testis
CLINICAL PEARLS
- Testicular cancer is the most common solid organ tumor in men aged 15 to 34 years.
- Testicular US is initial imaging of choice for testicular pathology.
- Radical inguinal orchiectomy is used for both diagnosis and treatment, with possible radiotherapy or chemotherapy as adjuvant treatment.
- 96% overall survival at 10 years after diagnosis and treatment